The term “work-life balance” has become a staple in discussions about modern living, conjuring images of professionals striving to juggle demanding careers and fulfilling personal lives. However, a closer look reveals significant blind spots in this perspective, especially when considering its implications for fertility and family life. By treating “life” as a monolithic entity, we may be oversimplifying the complexities of time allocation and missing critical dynamics that influence decisions about parenthood.
The Overlooked Complexity of "Life"
In demographic studies, the work-life balance framework typically contrasts paid employment with unpaid activities such as caregiving. Yet, within the unpaid portion of the equation lies a myriad of competing demands. Parenting, relationships, leisure, and self-care all compete for limited time, and these domains are far from being interchangeable.
For example, the rise of intensive parenting - a cultural shift emphasizing hands-on, time-intensive childcare - has made raising children more demanding than ever. This phenomenon cuts across socioeconomic lines, amplifying feelings of time scarcity, sleep deprivation, and social isolation, particularly for mothers of young children. Such pressures expose the inadequacy of viewing work-life balance as merely a tug-of-war between employment and personal time.
The Costs of Parenthood
Having children imposes both biological and emotional costs, disproportionately borne by women. The concept of “depletion through social reproduction” as coined by Rai et al. (2014), underscores how family responsibilities can lead to exhaustion and diminished well-being. This depletion is particularly acute for women from lower socioeconomic background, who often face compounded stressors such as irregular work schedules, physical strain, and limited access to coping resources.
From an evolutionary perspective, maternal exhaustion has tangible consequences: it not only reduces the likelihood of deciding to have additional children but also affects reproductive health. Research shows that tiredness correlates with a lower likelihood of second births among less-educated mothers, a pattern not observed among their higher-educated counterparts.
Competing Life Goals
Another factor influencing fertility decisions is the growing allure of alternative time-use options. Leisure activities, once auxiliary, have become central to identity formation. The proliferation of social media further magnifies this trend, exposing individuals to idealised lifestyles and fuelling comparisons with peers, including those without children.
For many, the rewards of leisure and personal pursuits come with significantly lower costs than parenthood. First-time mothers who report enjoying their daily activities less than they used to are less likely to have another child, suggesting that a fulfilling lifestyle outside of parenting can weigh in fertility decisions.
Gender Inequality and Time Scarcity
The unequal distribution of caregiving responsibilities between men and women remains a critical issue. While it’s tempting to propose that redistributing household labour could boost fertility rates, evidence suggests otherwise. Research indicates that a father’s free time has little bearing on a mother’s likelihood of having another child. This underscores the complexity of time-use dynamics within families and the challenges of synchronising schedules in dual-career households.
Moving Toward a "Lifestyle Equilibrium"
Addressing these issues requires a shift in focus. Rather than perpetuating the binary framework of work versus “life”, researchers and policymakers should explore the interplay between various aspects of life and their impact on fertility. Key questions remain unanswered: Are partners’ leisure practices associated with childbearing? How much time do the couples spend together? What sort of lifestyle is considered rewarding and for whom? What exactly are people unwilling to give up for having children? Is the number of childless people in a person’s network a predictor for remaining childless?
Combining national time-use surveys with longitudinal data on births could provide valuable insights. Such research could pave the way for more nuanced policies that support not only work-life balance but also the broader “lifestyle equilibrium” that modern mothers and fathers may need.
References:
- Coall, D.A., Tickner, M., McAllister, L. S. & Sheppard, P. (2016). Developmental Influences on Fertility Decisions by Women: An Evolutionary Perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371 (1692): 20150146.
- Jarosz, E., Matysiak. A. & Osiewalska, B. (2023). Maternal Free Time: A Missing Element in Fertility Studies. Population and Development Review, 49 (4): 801-828
- Jarosz, E., Matysiak, A. & Osiewalska, B. (2024). Mothers’ Parenting Behaviours, Strain, Enjoyment and Subsequent Childbearing. Journal of Family Issues, online first.
- Raudasoja, M., Sorkkila, M., Laitila, A. & Aunola, K. (2022). 'I Feel Many Contradictory Emotions’: Finnish Mothers’ Discursive Struggles with Motherhood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 84 (3): 752–772.
- Rai, Shirin M., Hoskyns, C. & Thomas, D. (2014). Depletion. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 16 (1): 86-105.
Acknowledgement:
This work is part of the project “Globalization- and Technology-Driven Labour Market Change and Fertility” (LABFER), funded by the European Research Council under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement number 866207). Learn more about this project on its website and X account.